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Spanish to English: Viva Aerobus online auctions General field: Bus/Financial Detailed field: Business/Commerce (general)
Source text - Spanish • Nombre de Participante/Postor y contraseñas.
1. Cada Postor, para poder participar en una Subasta, deberá registrarse seleccionando un nombre de usuario y contraseña.
2. El Postor será el único responsable de mantener su nombre de usuario y contraseña en un lugar seguro y confidencial.
3. El Postor acepta que tanto su nombre de usuario como su contraseña deben ser privados y no deben ser compartidos o mostrados a alguien más. Está estrictamente prohibido revelar a un tercero su nombre de usuario y/o contraseña.
4. El Postor será el único responsable de todas las Pujas que se hagan con su nombre de usuario y contraseña.
5. El Postor acepta que los datos proporcionados al momento de su registro son propios y ciertos, por lo que se compromete a no suplantar a ninguna persona o entidad o utilizar ningún nombre falso o utilizar el nombre de otra persona para crear su nombre de usuario y/o contraseña para acceder a una Subasta.
6. En aquellos casos en los que el Postor sospeche que se ha hecho uso de su nombre de usuario y/o contraseña sin su consentimiento, deberá de inmediato: a) dar aviso a Viva Aerobus por medio de la dirección de correo electrónico [email protected] y b) modificar su contraseña.
7. Viva Aerobus en cualquier momento, sin previo aviso y a su entera discreción, podrá cancelar los nombres de usuarios que considere que están siendo utilizados inapropiadamente.
Translation - English • Name of Participant/Bidder and passwords.
1. Each Bidder, in order to take part in an Auction, must register by choosing a username and password.
2. The Bidder shall be solely responsible for keeping their username and password in a safe and secret place.
3. The Bidder accepts that both their username and password must be private and must not be shared or shown to anyone else. It is strictly forbidden to reveal one’s username and/or password to a third party.
4. The Bidder shall be solely responsible for all the Bids placed under their username and password.
5. The Bidder accepts that all data provided at the time of their registration are their own and correct, hence they undertake not to impersonate any other person or entity or use a false name or make use of someone else’s name to make their username and/or password in order to access an Auction.
6. In cases where a Bidder suspects that their username and/or password has been used without their consent, they must immediately: a) notify Viva Aerobus at the e-mail address [email protected] and b) change their password.
7. Viva Aerobus may at any time, without forewarning and wholly at their discretion, cancel any usernames they may deem as being used inappropriately.
Spanish to English: Banco de Mexico Circular General field: Bus/Financial Detailed field: Finance (general)
Source text - Spanish El Banco de México, en relación con las disposiciones de carácter general que debe emitir conforme a la Ley para Regular las Instituciones de Tecnología Financiera, ha tomado en cuenta las nuevas tecnologías y modelos de negocio desarrollados en las últimas décadas, que han ampliado las opciones en la provisión de servicios de pago para los consumidores. En particular, el surgimiento en otras jurisdicciones de nuevas empresas que proveen servicios de pago electrónico, a través de la emisión y administración de fondos de pago electrónico, ha cobrado mayor importancia por el valor agregado que pueden aportar a los consumidores.
En línea con lo anterior, con el propósito de continuar propiciando el buen funcionamiento de los sistemas de pagos y el sano desarrollo del sistema financiero, así como la protección de los intereses del público, resulta conveniente establecer un marco regulatorio que, por una parte, permita el desarrollo de la innovación en los servicios de pagos del país, de tal forma que se aprovechen los beneficios de la eficiencia que las instituciones de fondos de pago electrónico pueden aportar a la provisión de servicios de pago y, al mismo tiempo, establezca condiciones adecuadas para que se mitiguen los riesgos asociados a tales servicios. Lo anterior se logra mediante el establecimiento de requerimientos que las instituciones de fondos de pago electrónico deberán observar en los diversos aspectos de su operación relacionada con la emisión y administración de dichos tipos de fondos. A este respecto, resulta conveniente considerar la apertura de cuentas, la recepción de recursos para la emisión de fondos de pago electrónico y la forma en que debe llevarse a cabo dicha emisión, así como su transmisión y redención. Asimismo, los requisitos señalados también deben estar referidos a la realización de aquellas actividades adicionales que la Ley para Regular las Instituciones de Tecnología Financiera permite realizar a las instituciones de fondos de pago electrónico. En particular, es adecuado considerar el otorgamiento de beneficios no monetarios, el establecimiento de un límite a los sobregiros que las instituciones de fondos de pago electrónico pueden otorgar, las transferencias de fondos de pago electrónico referidos a moneda extranjera, así como la obligación de interconectarse a los sistemas de pagos del país aplicable a aquellas instituciones que tengan una alta operatividad, un monto importante de fondos de pago electrónico emitidos, o bien, un número elevado de clientes.
Translation - English Banco de México, pursuant to the general provisions it must issue in accordance with the Law for the Regulation of Financial Technology Institutions, has considered new technologies and business models developed over the last decades, which have broadened the possibilities in payment services for consumers. In particular, the appearance in other jurisdictions, of new companies providing electronic payment services by the issuance and handling of electronic funds, has become of greater significance due to the added value they can offer to consumers.
In line with the foregoing, for the purposes of continuing to encourage the correct functioning of payment systems and the healthy development of the financial system, as well as of protecting the interests of the public, it is appropriate to lay out a regulatory framework which, on the one hand, allows for innovation to take place in the nation’s payment services, in such a way that maximizes the efficiency dividend that electronic funds payment institutions can offer in the provision of payment services, and, at the same time, establishes proper conditions for the mitigation of the risks associated with such services. This is achieved by the establishment of requirements that electronic payment funds institutions must meet across the various areas of their operations, relating to the transfer and handling of these kinds of funds. To these ends, it is fitting to consider the opening of accounts, the receipt of resources for the issuance of electronic funds and the way in which such issuances should take place, as well as their transfer and redemption. Likewise, the requirements mentioned must also apply to the performance of the additional activities that the Law for the Regulation of Financial Technology Institutions permits electronic payment funds institutions to carry out. In particular, it befits us to consider the granting of non-monetary benefits, the establishment of a limit upon overdrafts that electronic funds payment institutions can allow, electronic funds transfers in foreign currencies, as well as the obligation to interconnect with the payment systems in the country that apply to institutions with a significant level of operations, a considerable volume of issuance of electronic funds, or a large number of clients.
Spanish to English: Purchase and importation of goods and services (Panama) General field: Bus/Financial Detailed field: Law: Taxation & Customs
Source text - Spanish Informe de compras e importaciones de bienes y servicios. Formulario 43
Informe que permite identificar todas las compras e importaciones de bienes y servicios relacionados a costos o gastos del contribuyente para la producción de renta o conservación de la misma y que constituyen ingreso gravable para quien los provea.
Obligados
Están obligadas a presentar este Informe de Compras e Importaciones de Bienes y Servicios:
Las personas naturales y jurídicas que deban presentar declaración jurada de ISR con ingresos brutos iguales o superiores a Un Millón de Balboas (B/. 1.000.000.00) y/o poseído a la misma fecha Activos Totales por un monto igual o superior a los Tres Millones de Balboas (B/. 3.000.000,00), en el período inmediatamente anterior a informar.
Plazo de presentación y Periodicidad:
Este Informe debe ser presentado mensualmente a más tardar el último día del mes siguiente al período a informar. Si esta fecha de vencimiento coincide con un día no hábil, el plazo se extenderá hasta el siguiente día hábil.
Tipo de presentación
Original
Es la presentación realizada por primera vez ante la Dirección General de Ingresos.
El informe debe ser elaborado utilizando el formulario electrónico respectivo que estará disponible en la página Web de la DGI de forma gratuita. El mismo se presentará únicamente a través de Internet con el RUC y NIT del informante.
Rectificativa
Son aquellas que podrán presentar los contribuyentes para rectificar el detalle de los informes. La persona obligada a informar que desee rectificar, deberá completar un nuevo informe, que incluya toda la información a reportar, de acuerdo con lo establecido en la resolución y el instructivo correspondiente.
Translation - English Purchase and importation of goods and services report. Form 43.
This report identifies all purchases and importation of goods and services related to a taxpayer's costs or expenses in the generation or upkeep of revenue and which constitute taxable income for whoever provides them.
Applicability
The following are obliged to submit this Purchase and importation of goods and services report:
Natural and legal persons already bound to submit an ISR legal declaration with gross income equal to or exceeding one million Balboas (B/. 1,000,000) and/or having total assets on the same date equal to or exceeding three million Balboas (3,000,000), in the period immediately prior to submitting the report.
Submission deadlines and duration:
This form should be submitted monthly, no later than the last day of the month following the month to be reported. If the last day of the month is not a work day the deadline will be extended to the next work day.
Type of presentation
Original
The first time presentation to the Revenue Authority.
The form should be filled out using the electronic form available free on the DGI website. It can only be submitted electronically via the internet with the RUC and NIT of the reporter.
Amendments
Amendments may be made by taxpayers to correct details of their reports. The reporting person who wishes to make corrections should fill out a new report, including all the required information, in line with the established guidelines and instructions.
Spanish to English: Catalan political prisoners General field: Other Detailed field: Government / Politics
Source text - Spanish La juez de la Audiencia Nacional Carmen Lamela envió a última hora de este lunes a prisión a Jordi Sànchez y Jordi Cuixart, líderes de la Asamblea Nacional Catalana (ANC) y Òmnium, las principales entidades movilizadoras del independentismo. La magistrada les imputa un delito de sedición por supuestamente dirigir y alentar a las masas el 20 y 21 de septiembre para impedir, sin lograrlo, que se llevara a cabo la Operación Anubis contra la organización del referéndum ilegal de autodeterminación del 1 de octubre. Lamela, sin embargo, rechazó la petición de la Fiscalía de mandar a la cárcel sin fianza al comisario mayor de los Mossos d’Esquadra, Josep Lluís Trapero, y se limitó a imponerle medidas cautelares leves.
La juez Lamela ordenó el ingreso en prisión de Cuixart y Sànchez después de que el primero se acogiera a su derecho a no declarar y el segundo se limitara a contestar a las preguntas de su abogado, Jordi Pina, que trató de hacer hincapié en que todas las movilizaciones lideradas por su cliente tuvieron un carácter pacífico. La magistrada sitúa a ambos líderes soberanistas —organizadores de todas las grandes movilizaciones del independentismo, como las manifestaciones de las Diadas del 11 de septiembre— como los “principales promotores y directores de las protestas del 20 y 21 de septiembre.
Ese día, más de 40.000 personas, convocadas a través de las redes sociales por ANC y Òmnium, se agolparon ante la Consejería de Economía de la Generalitat para protestar por las detenciones de 11 altos cargos que supuestamente se encargaban de la logística del referéndum ilegal. Los altercados que se produjeron en esas protestas dificultaron, sin llegar a impedirla, la labor de la comisión judicial. Ese día, la secretaria del Juzgado de Instrucción 13 de Barcelona tuvo que salir de la Consejería de Economía de la Generalitat, en el paseo de Gracia, por una azotea y posteriormente mezclarse con la gente que salía de un teatro contiguo, mientras los más exaltados destrozaban tres todoterrenos de la Guardia Civil, causando daños cifrados en 135.600 euros.
Translation - English Spanish Supreme Court justice Carmen Lamela has ordered the incarceration of Jordi Sanchez and Jordi Cuixart, leaders of the Catalan National Assembly (ANC) and Omnium respectively - the two main organisations behind the Catalan independence movement. The judge found them guilty of sedition for supposedly organising and inciting the masses on the 20th and 21st September, to block (unsuccessfully) Operation Anubis, against Catalunya's illegal independence referendum on the 1st October. Lamela did not however agree to the public prosecutor's request to incarcerate without bail the chief inspector of the Catalan police force, Josep Lluis Trapero, instead applying light precautionary sanctions.
Justice Lamela sentenced the pair after Cuixart exercised his right not to testify and Sanchez would only answer questions from his own defence, Jordi Pina, who in turn was at pains to stress the peaceful nature of the events organised by his client. The judge described both of the separatist leaders - organisers of all the main independence rallies, such as the demonstrations on the Diadas (Catalunya's national day) on 11th September - as the "main promoters and organisers of the protests on the 20th and 21st September".
On that occasion more than 40,000 people, called out over social media by ANC and Omnium, gathered at the Department of Economy of the Generalitat to protest the detention of 11 senior figures accused of organising logistics for the illegal referendum. The altercations that took place at those protests hampered the work of the Judicial Commission, without halting it entirely. On that day, the secretary of Barcelona Court of Instruction 13 had to leave the Department of Economy of the Generalitat, on the Paseo de Gracia, via the roof, and then mingle with folk pouring out of a next-door theatre, whilst angrier elements of the mob wrecked three 4x4 vehicles belonging to the Guardia Civil, wreaking damage reckoned at 135,000 Euros.
Spanish to English: Declaration of independence General field: Other Detailed field: Government / Politics
Source text - Spanish El presidente de la Generalitat Carles Puigdemont no aclara, en su respuesta al requerimiento de Mariano Rajoy, si declaró la independencia en el pleno Parlament del martes. En la misiva, que han avanzado Catalunya Ràdio y RAC1, Puigdemont se limita a adjuntar diferentes documentos, como la Ley del Referéndum o el informe sobre las cargas policiales del 1 de octubre. Puigdemont defiende la senda de diálogo y recuerda que dejó "en suspensión" la declaración de independencia para abrir un proceso, "de dos meses", para intentar llegar a un acuerdo con el Ejecutivo central. En la carta, de cuatro páginas, el president pide a Rajoy una reunión para llegar a acuerdos y que acabe la "represión contra el pueblo y el Gobierno de Cataluña".
En un tono conciliador, Puigdemont insiste, en que la "prioridad" de su Gobierno es "buscar con toda la intensidad la vía de diálogo". "Queremos hablar, como lo hacen las democracias consolidadas", añade. En este sentido, apunta que la "suspensión" de la declaración de independencia el pasado martes es una muestra de la "firme voluntad de encontrar una solución y no el enfrentamiento". El presidente catalán ofrece un plazo de dos meses para abrir "un camino de negociación", que incluya otros actores, como mediadores.
Translation - English President of the Generalitat, Carles Puigdemont, has failed to clarify, in his response to Mariano Rajoy's request, whether or not he actually declared independence at the parliamentary session last Tuesday. In the dispatch, published by Catalunya Radio and RAC1, Puigdemont went no further than appending several documents, such as the Statute of Referendum and the report on police assaults on the 1st October. Puigdemont defended the path of dialogue and repeated that the declaration of independence has been "suspended" in order to open a "two month" process to try to reach an agreement with central government. In the four page letter the president has asked Rajoy for a meeting to establish accords to end the "repression of the Catalan people and government".
In a conciliatory tone, Puigdemont insisted that the "priority" of his government is to "seek at all costs the route of dialogue". "We want to talk, like mature democracies do" he added. In this sense, he noted that the "suspension" of the declaration of independence last Tuesday shows a "firm resolve to find a solution and not confrontation". The Catalan president has set forth a period of two months to open a "pathway of negotiation", in which other parties could be involved as mediators.
Portuguese to English: Benfica beat Porto General field: Other Detailed field: Sports / Fitness / Recreation
Source text - Portuguese O Benfica venceu o F. C. Porto (0-2), no Dragão, na primeira mão das meias-finais da Taça de Portugal. As águias ganham vantagem ficam em em relação ao rival para o jogo decisivo, a 20 de Abril, a disputar no Estádio da Luz. Encarnados terminam com dez.
Os encarnados entraram melhor no jogo, colocando-se logo em vantagem por intermédio de Fábio Coentrão, aos seis minutos, aproveitando um erro defensivo da equipa do F. C. Porto. Os dragões acusaram o golpe e sentiram dificuldades em equilibrar o encontro face à estratégia de povoamento do meio-campo do Benfica, que partia rápido para o contra-ataque.
Aproveitando a insegurança defensiva dos azuis e brancos, o Benfica ampliou a vantagem por intermédio de Javi Garcia (2-0). O espanhol ensaiou um pontapé de longa distância, depois de um mau alívio de Fernando que acabaria por fixar o resultado final. A perder por dois golos, o F. C. Porto ainda reagiu por Hulk, mas o guarda-redes Júlior César fez uma excelente defesa ao remate fortíssimo do brasileiro.
No segundo tempo, os encarnados continuaram a fazer o seu jogo, recuando no terreno perante um adversário que jogava mais com o coração do que com a cabeça. Fábio Coentrão acabou por ser expulso aos 69 minutos, mas o F. C. Porto não soube aproveitar a vantagem de ter mais um jogador no terreno de jogo.
Translation - English Benfica beat F.C. Porto (2-0) at the Dragon Stadium in the first leg of the semi-final of the Portuguese Cup. The Eagles carry forward the advantage for the return match on the 20th April, to be played at the Luz Stadium.
The reds started brighter, pulling ahead thanks to a Fabio Coentrao goal after six minutes, following a defensive mistake by Porto. The dragons were hard pressed to find a reply in the face of Benfica's strategy of crowding out the midfield, and launching quick counter-attacks.
Taking advantage of the defensive weakness of the blue and whites, Benfica stretched their lead through Javi Garcia (2-0). The Spaniard pulled off a long range strike after Fernando's bad clearance, which was to settle the result. Trailing by two, Porto tried to come back through Hulk but goalkeeper Julio Cesar did a terrific job of stopping the Brazilian's rocket strike.
In the second half the reds continued to dictate play, dropping back before opponents who played more with their hearts than with their heads. Fabio Coentrao eventually got himself sent off in the 70th minute, but Porto were simply unable to take advantage of the extra man on the pitch.
Portuguese to English: Brazilian food history General field: Other Detailed field: Food & Drink
Source text - Portuguese A cozinha brasileira nasceu da combinação da culinária indígena com as dos colonizadores e os escravos, porem para que seja compreendido seu nascimento é necessário relatar como índios primeiros habitantes, se alimentavam quando o Brasil foi descoberto pelos portugueses.
Pero Vaz de Caminha em 24 de abril de 1500 dois dias após o descobrimento do Brasil, redigiu uma carta ao rei de Portugal onde informava sobre o primeiro contato dos índios com a cozinha européia e informava na carta também ainda que de forma equivocada que no Brasil não era produzido nada de útil para o comércio pois em 1500 no Brasil era plantado aipim batata, abóbora, milho, feijão, fava, amendoim porem não faziam parte da alimentação diária .
"Eles não lavram, nem criam. Não há aqui boi, nem vaca, nem cabra, nem ovelhas, nem galinha, nem qualquer outra alimária, que costumada seja ao viver dos homens. Não comem senão disse inhame que aqui há muito, e dessa semente e frutos, que a terra e as árvores de si lançam."
Pero Vaz de Caminha notou também que recusa da comida Européia durou pouco e após alguns dias o índio comiam e bebiam tudo o tudo o que os portugueses lhe ofereciam como : presunto defumado e cozido, peixe cozido, pão, figos em passa, confeito de açúcar e fartéis ; primeiro bolo doce saboreado no Brasil.
Na carta regida Caminha também conclui que por se alimentarem apenas de trigo e legumes a índia era mais robusta e a pele mais brilhante.
Os portugueses não se interessaram pela culinária local., o único alimento que provaram e gostaram foi o palmito, e o inhame que diziam ser a alimentação diária dos indígenas na verdade era a mandioca., alimento que ele utilizava para fazer farinha que a partir dela fizeram o pirão de peixe ou carne , a banana da terra que já existia no Brasil era utilizada para fazer mingaus, caldos e bebidas.
Os índios não tinham o hábito de plantar frutas. Apenas colhia o que a natureza os oferecia fartamente: abacaxi, goiaba, cajá, maracujá, imbu, mamão e caju, frutas como banana, laranja, limas e os limões só formam conhecidos mais tarde, quando trazidos pelos portugueses.
O peixe cozido ou assado era um dos alimentos favoritos dos índios.
Os indígenas assim como o homem pré-histórico em 1500, não tina uma hora determinada para comer, como era comum entre os europeus se alimentavam sempre que tivesse fome.
Os indígenas obtinham sal pela água do mar, porém o sal não lhe despertavam grande interesse pois não tinham uma necessidade orgânica, pois transpiravam pouco e suas peles eram cobertas por tintas ornamentais
Com a pimenta e o sal , os índios preparavam molho mas não o cozinhava direto com o alimento, apenas usavam os molho s elaborados no momento em que iriam se alimentar.
Como instrumento da cozinha, os índios utilizavam panelas, espetos e moquém - uma espécie de grelhas que colocava sobre o fogo baixo e para assar, essa técnica consistia em colocar a carne ou o peixe em um buraco na terra forrada com folhas grandes, depois cobriam-na com folhas e terra, fazia-se um fogo sobre a cova a qual mantinha-se acesso até o momento de assar.
Tanto as panelas, fornos de barro para fazer farinha de mandioca, beijus e bebidas eram uma ocupação feminina dentro as tribos indígenas.
Os índios apreciavam bastante bebidas e sabia fabrica-las a partir de fermentação da mandioca, aipim, batata-doce, produziam vinho de frutas como caju, ananás, e jenipapo e bebidas não fermentadas com a garapa de pamonha, que era a pamonha dissolvida em água, e o xibé, uma mistura de farinha de mandioca com água. Naquela época os índios não conheciam a bebida tipo um refresco, em que a fruta é espremida e misturada á água.
As bebidas indígenas sempre eram aquecidas antes de serem servias, mesmo que em seu preparo já tivesse sido cozida.
Ao longo dos anos, a dieta indígena mudou relativamente pouco: manteve-se bastante fiel aos padrões de 1500. Ela deixou uma herança extremamente significativa para a alimentação brasileira.
Translation - English Brazilian food was born out of the union of indigenous cuisine with the cuisines of the colonists and slaves. However, to understand its origins better we must first talk about the food habits of the original indian inhabitants at the time of the Portuguese discovery.
On 24th April 1500, two days after the discovery of Brasil, Pedro Vez de Caminha wrote a letter to the king of Portugal, describing the first encounter of the indians with European foods. In the same letter he mistakenly also claimed that Brazil produced nothing of commercial value - at that time Brazil produced celery, potato, squash, maize, beans, fava beans and peanuts - but these were not common components of the daily diet.
"They do not grow, they do not rear. There are no oxen, no cows, no goats, no sheep, no chickens or any other kind of domesticated animal. They only eat the yams that grow so prolifically here, and those seeds and fruits which fall off the trees before them."
Pedro Vez de Caminha also noted that repudiation of European food did not last for long, and after a few days the indians ate and drank everything the Portuguese gave them, like: smoked and baked ham, baked fish, bread, figs with raisins, sugar sweets and farteis (almond candies)- the first sweet pudding savoured in Brazil.
In the letter Caminha also concluded that the diet of only wheat and vegetables made the indian more robust and the skin brighter.
The Portuguese were not interested in the local food. The only items that were to their liking were the palm cabbage and the yam which they said was the staple diet of the indians. In fact it was manioc, which they used to make flour for thickening fish and meat stews. The plantain, which was endemic to Brazll was used to make porrige, soups and drinks.
The indians did not cultivate fruits. They only collected what nature provided abundantly: pineapples, guava, hog plums, passion fruit, brazil plums, papaya and cashews. Fruits such as banana, lime and lemon were only introduced later, brought in by the Portuguese.
Baked or grilled fish were some of the favourite foods on the indians. Like pre-historic man, the indians of 1500 AD did not have set meal times as was common among Europeans. They simply ate whenever they were hungry.
The indians got salt from seawater, but it was of little interest to them as they had little organic need for it. They sweated little and their skin was covered with decorative dyes. They used salt and pepper in condiments, but they didn't combine them with food at the time of cooking. They added condiments at the time of eating.
For kitchen utensils the indians used pots, spits, and moquem - a type of grill that was placed over a low flame to cook. This technique consisted of putting the meat or fish in a hole lined with big leaves. This was then covered with leaves and earth. A fire was made on top of the hole, to which access was maintained until the time of cooking.
Both the pots, clay ovens for making manioc flour, tapioca and drinks was the responsibility of the womenfolk of an indian tribe. The indians were very fond of drinks, which they made from fermented manioc, cassava and sweet potato; wines from fruits such as cashew, pineapple, genipa; and unfermented drinks from pamonha juice (which was pamonha dissolved in water), and xibe, a mixture of manioc flour and water. In those days the indians had nothing like our modern soft drinks, in which fruit juice is mixed with water.
Indian drinks were always served hot, even if they had been cooked during preparation. The indigenous diet has changed relatively little over the centuries: it still remains closely tied to the habits of 1500 and has left a very significant imprint on Brazilian cuisine.
Portuguese to English: Ecology in Brazil General field: Science Detailed field: Environment & Ecology
Source text - Portuguese O Brasil abriga a maior biodiversidade do planeta. Mais de 20% do número total de espécies da Terra estão em território nacional. No entanto, possuímos poucos ecólogos, o que resulta em um raso conhecimento das espécies que vivem em nossos parques nacionais, estaduais, Reservas Particulares do Patrimônio Natural (RPPNs) ou quaisquer outras reservas naturais.
É importante diferenciar a ciência da ecologia de outras ciências como biologia, ornitologia, ictiologia, primatologia. Normalmente, esses estudos têm foco específico em grupos de espécies individuais. A ecologia é uma ciência mais ampla, que considera as interações entre todos os participantes de ecossistemas, incluindo seres humanos. As universidades brasileiras estão começando a estabelecer departamentos de ecologia, enquanto nos Estados Unidos esses programas já são comuns por mais de 30 anos.
Se queremos fundamentar nossas forças conservacionistas na ciência, precisamos da ecologia. Uma pequena amostra dessa verdade foi alçada nos anos 1980. Na Amazônia, foi observado como as árvores de castanha-do-pará, a Bertholletia excelsa, são dependentes de diversas espécies de animais para a sua sobrevivência.
O estudo demonstrou que o gênero de orquídeas Coryanthes tem espécies que usam vários métodos para atrair abelhas do gênero Eugolssine. Essas mesmas espécies de abelhas são polinizadoras de árvores de castanha-do-pará. Quando as castanhas maduras caem das árvores, estão cobertas por uma casca redonda e dura, da qual apenas a cutia Dasyprocta azarae possui força para abri-la. As cutias se alimentam das castanhas e enterram pedaços roídos, que guardam para buscar depois e acabam esquecidos na terra.
É necessário ter orquídeas de gênero Coryanthes para ter abelhas que polinizem flores da castanha-do-pará. É preciso das árvores para haver castanhas e são necessárias espécies de cutias para que a castanheira continue brotando. Abelhas machos precisam do perfume dessas orquídeas para atrair as fêmeas. As árvores dependem das abelhas, mas o porquê dessa dependência ainda é desconhecido.
Apesar de sabermos que nas regiões onde não existem essas flores, também não existem as abelhas e as castanheiras.
E aí? Você pode se perguntar. Entretanto, a indústria dessas castanhas gera cerca de 100 mil empregos diretos e indiretos na Bolívia e, em torno de 28 mil famílias dependem dessa indústria. O New York Botanical Garden publicou que no Brasil cerca de 40 mil toneladas de castanhas foram produzidas em 1990. Somente da safra brasileira, em 1986, rendeu USD $ 5.773.228,00. E a Bolívia ainda continua como o maior produtor de castanha-do-pará do mundo.
Todo isso depende das orquídeas, abelhas, castanheiras e cutias. Quem sabe o que ou quem mais precisa dessas orquídeas, abelhas, castanheiras e cutias? Obviamente é necessário o desenvolvimento de mais estudos científicos ecológicos, mas faltam ecólogos no Brasil, assim como projetos ecológicos.
Uma iniciativa pioneira começa a ser desenvolvida neste ano: o projeto “Bichos do Pantanal”. O Instituto Sustentar de Responsabilidade Socioambiental, juntamente com a Petrobras, coordena a iniciativa, que tem como meta pesquisar e proteger espécies da fauna do Pantanal, além de estabelecer um programa de educação ambiental direcionado a escolas, turistas, pescadores e comunidades locais.
Podemos e precisamos continuar com estudos sobre animais e espécies individuais e específicos, mas precisamos muito de grandes projetos fundamentados na ciência da ecologia, que documenta respostas e informações para as grandes questões de conservação do meio ambiente.
Translation - English Brazil is home to the greatest biodiversity on the planet. More than 20% of the earth's total species live within its borders. Nonetheless we have few ecologists, giving rise to a rather dim knowledge of the species living in our national and state parks, Special Natural Heritage Reserves (RPPNs) or any other kind of nature reserve.
It is important to draw a distinction between ecological science and other kinds of science such as biology, ornithology, ictiology, primatology. These types of study are specialised towards groups and individual species. Ecology is a broader science, which studies the interactions between all the players in an ecosystem, including humans. Brazilian universities are just beginning to set up ecology departments, whereas in the USA such programmes have been running for 30 years or more.
If we wish to base our conservation efforts on science, we need ecology. A small example of this came up on the 1980s. In the Amazon, it was seen that the Para chestnut tree, Bertholletia excelsa, is dependent on a range of species for its survival.
The study showed that the Coryanthes genus of orchid includes species that use various methods to attract bees of the Eugolssine genus. These same bees then pollinate the Para chestnut. When the mature conkers fall from the tree they are protected by a round, tough shell, which only the agouti is strong enough to break. The agouti eats the chestnut and then buries small chunks to retrieve later, but which can then end up forgotten.
Coryanthes orchids are needed to bring the bees which pollinate the Para chestnut. The trees are needed for there to be chestnuts and agouti species are needed to ensure the further germination of the chestnut trees. Male bees need the perfume of those orchids to attract females. The trees rely on the bees, but the ultimate reasons why still remains a mystery.
In regions where these flowers are not found, nor are the bees or the chestnut trees.
So what?, you may ask. Well that particular chestnut industry supports around 100,000 jobs directly or indirectly in Bolivia, and in turn around 28,000 families. New York Botanical Garden announced that in Brazil around 40,000 tonnes of chestnuts were produced in 1990. The Brazilian harvest alone generated $5.7m in 1986. And Bolivia is the world's biggest producer of Para chestnuts.
All this depends on orchids, bees, chestnut trees and agoutis. Who can say what else depends on those orchids, bees, chestnut trees and agoutis? Clearly there is a need for further ecological investigation, but there is a shortage of ecologists in Brazil, as well as ecology projects.
A pioneering project got underway this year: the "Creatures of the Pantanal" project. The Support Institute of Social-environmental Responsibility , along with Petrobras is co-ordinating the initiative which aims to research and protect species of the Pantanal, as well as establish an environmental education programme aimed at schools, tourists, fishermen and local communities.
We can and we should continue our studies of animals, of specific species and individuals, but we have great need of projects based on the science of ecology, which provides data and answers to the really big questions of environmental conservation.
French to English: Cirque de Gavarnie General field: Other Detailed field: Tourism & Travel
Source text - French Classé Grand Site de Midi-Pyrénées, le célèbre cirque de Gavarnie est également inscrit au patrimoine mondial de l'UNESCO. Décrit par l'écrivain Victor Hugo comme le "Colosseum de la nature", ce remarquable patrimoine naturel n'est accessible qu'à pied, à cheval ou à dos d'âne au départ du village de Gavarnie. Un agréable chemin permet en une heure d'atteindre le site de l'hôtellerie du cirque et son superbe point de vue sur l'ensemble du gigantesque amphithéâtre rocheux. Le panorama sur les hautes murailles calcaires jalonnées de cascades est vraiment magnifique ! Les amateurs de randonnée pédestre pourront poursuivre leur ascension jusqu'au pied de la grande cascade. Cette dernière, fort impressionnante avec ses 423 mètres de hauteur, est l'une des plus grandes cascades d'Europe !
Translation - English Designated a "Grand Site" of the Midi-Pyrenees department, the famous Cirque de Gavarnie is also listed by UNESCO as a world heritage site. Described by the writer Victor Hugo as "Nature's Colosseum", this striking natural wonder can only be reached on foot, horseback or mule from the village of Gavarnie. Following the pleasant footpath for about an hour will see you to the Hotel of the cirque and its superb view across the whole of the giant rock amphitheatre. The panorama of the high limestone cliffs punctuated with waterfalls is truly spectacular! Keen walkers can keep going right up to the foot of the main waterfall. It's not just a magnificent sight - with a vertical drop of 423m it is also one of Europe's biggest.
French to English: Cloud computing General field: Tech/Engineering Detailed field: Computers: Systems, Networks
Source text - French Le Cloud Computing nous offre aujourd'hui des services sophistiqués (logiciels en ligne, sauvegarde de données...) exploitables à volonté depuis n'importe où dans le monde à partir du moment où l'on dispose d'une connexion internet.
Le Cloud représente un basculement de tendance, au lieu d’obtenir des fonctionnalités et de la puissance de calcul par l’acquisition de matériel et de logiciel, on préfère utiliser de la puissance de calcul et du stockage mise à disposition par un fournisseur via son navigateur web.
Le Cloud Computing est depuis peu un terme tendance, on l’entend, on en parle mais on ne le voit pas . Mais qu’est-ce que le « Cloud Computing » ? Quel service rend t’il et pourquoi avons nous de plus en plus recours au Cloud ?
Translation - English Cloud Computing now offers sophisticated tools (online applications, data storage...) on demand from anywhere in the world with an internet connection.
The Cloud represents a quantum leap in the way we do things. Instead of obtaining functionality and processing power by the acquisition of hardware and software, we can use the processing power and data storage capacity of a service provider through a web browser.
Cloud Computing has become a new catchphrase; one hears it, one talks about it, but one doesn't see it. What is this "Cloud Computing" all about?" What use is it and why are we using the Cloud more and more?
French to English: Rebreather diving systems General field: Tech/Engineering Detailed field: Engineering: Industrial
Source text - French Principe général
La plongée loisir, en circuit ouvert, telle que nous la concevons actuellement, doit beaucoup au développement initial de cette pratique dans le secteur militaire. Les avancées techniques et commerciales engendrées par la pratique de masse de cette activité par tout un chacun se sont naturellement répercutées dans le domaine militaire qui a su, à son tour, y trouver son intérêt.
Ce cercle vertueux du développement de la plongée en circuit ouvert est en passe de se dupliquer dans le domaine de la plongée en recycleur : la technique militaire, confidentielle et onéreuse, s’est peu à peu adaptée à une pratique élargie dont les coûts de mise en œuvre s’amenuisent au fil du temps. Tout porte à croire que le développement de nos recycleurs de loisir ouvrira à son tour la porte au développement d’outils militaires et de techniques encore plus innovantes par le futur...
Le principe de fonctionnement général d’un recycleur est des plus simples : comme il l’est précisé dans son nom, cette machine « recycle » le gaz respiré.
Lorsque l’on plonge en circuit ouvert, tout le gaz inspiré, prélevé dans le bloc, est expiré et perdu dans l’eau. L’autonomie du plongeur se trouve donc limitée par la capacité globale du bloc (volume/pression de service), et par sa consommation propre (volume pulmonaire courant/fréquence respiratoire/profondeur d’évolution).
En recycleur, le gaz expiré va être récupéré pour être inspiré de nouveau après avoir bien entendu été rendu « propre » à la consommation.
En effet, le corps humain ne consomme qu’une infime partie (de l’ordre de 5%) de l’oxygène (O2) inspiré. Le gaz expiré contient donc encore environ 16% d’oxygène utilisable par le métabolisme humain. Il suffirait d’y injecter de temps à autre de l’oxygène en très petite quantité pour maintenir le mélange à sa valeur nominale. En revanche, ce même métabolisme produit du dioxyde de carbone (CO2), qui, lui, serait rapidement nocif s’il n’était éliminé. Pour continuer à le respirer il faudrait donc épurer le gaz en CO2. Le recycleur utilise ces deux principes simultanément : enrichissement du mélange expiré en oxygène et épuration en CO2.
Pour cela, diverses phases sont nécessaires :
- La récupération du gaz expiré : elle a lieu dans un sac, appelé « faux poumon expiratoire », lorsque le plongeur expire dans le tuyau annelé.
- L’épuration en CO2 de ce gaz : elle a lieu dans une cartouche de chaux sodée, qui fixe chimiquement le CO2.
- L’analyse de la teneur en oxygène du mélange et sa mise au niveau souhaité si nécessaire : grâce à une ou des cellules électroniques, et un système d’injection d’O2 manuel ou automatique.
- L ’inspiration du mélange obtenu : elle a lieu dans un « «faux poumon inspiratoire », par l’intermédiaire d’un autre tuyau annelé.
L’ensemble du dispositif nécessaire à ces différentes phases est généralement caréné et installé au sein d’une espèce de valise que le plongeur porte sur son dos... Les plongeurs ressemblent alors à des tortues avec leur carapace, d’où le sobriquet dont je les affuble : « tortues Ninja » !
La cartouche de chaux sodée est en quelque sorte le cœur de la machine. Elle doit retenir l’ensemble du CO2 présent dans la boucle respiratoire, sans « freiner » le déplacement du gaz. Trop tassée, elle ne laisserait pas suffisamment passer le mélange respiratoire et occasionnerait un travail ventilatoire trop important. Pas assez tassée, elle se comporterait comme un tamis dont les mailles trop grosses laisseraient passer le CO2. Sa capacité à fixer le CO2 sera en règle générale le facteur limitant de la durée de plongée en recycleur. Tout dépassement de cette durée risque irrémédiablement d’entraîner le plongeur vers l’hypercapnie et son corollaire : l’essoufflement. La chaux sodée produit, en présence d’eau, de la soude. Cette base, à l’instar d’un acide, est particulièrement nocive pour le corps humain et peu créer des lésions irréversibles, notamment au niveau des voies respiratoires. On comprendra toute l’attention que requiert donc la préparation et le contrôle de cet organe. Afin de pallier toute entrée d’eau dans le système, des « pièges à eau » sont prévus à différents niveaux des machines. Il arrive cependant que de l’eau pénètre dans le système, comme lors d’une de mes toutes premières tentative : la goût est affreux, le passage en circuit ouvert s’avère instantanément la meilleure et la seule solution !
En fonction des machines les faux poumons pourront être situés au niveau des bretelles ou dans la coque de protection. Ils prennent la forme de sacs souples, facilement déformables. Le faux poumon d’expiration sera équipé d’une soupape de surpression, nécessaire à l’élimination d’un surplus de gaz (lors de la remonté par exemple). Le faux poumon d’expiration peut recevoir l’injection d’O2. Cependant, l’injection ne se fait que très rarement dans la partie expiratoire car dans ce cas là la soupape aurait tendance à tout rejeter au dehors On injecte généralement dans la partie inspiratoire ou cartouche de chaux coté.
inspiratoire comme dans le cas de l’ INSPIRATION. Le faux poumon d’inspiration reçoit l’injecteur de diluant, nécessaire au rétablissement du volume de gaz inspiratoire en adéquation avec le volume pulmonaire du plongeur et la pression ambiante.
L’analyse de la PPO2 (Pression Partielle d’O2) sera confiée à des cellules électroniques dont la redondance assurera la sécurité de l’ensemble. Différents modèles et marques sont disponibles sur le marché : leur principe de fonctionnement reste identique : elles « comptent » les molécules d’O2, transcrivent ce chiffre en tension électrique, grâce à une pile embarquée. Le tout est traité par un petit calculateur capable d’afficher une pression partielle d’O2, en fonction de la profondeur d’évolution.
On comprend facilement qu’un tel équipement nécessitera une préparation calme et méticuleuse et qu’une plongée au recycleur, encore moins qu’une plongée en scaphandre autonome ouvert, ne s’improvise pas ! Nous aurons l’occasion plus tard d’en évoquer les risques spécifiques.
Recycleur fermé
Dans ce type de recycleur, en théorie, aucune bulle de gaz n’est libérée : le circuit est complètement « fermé ». On emploie souvent le sigle CCR (Close Circuit Rebreather) pour le désigner.
A titre d’exemple, étudions le fonctionnement d’un recycleur « INSPIRATION », à gestion électronique de la PPO2. Le schéma ci-dessous provient du distributeur de cette machine « Ambient Pressure Diving ».
Le plongeur expire dans l’embout buccal. Le gaz expiré est conduit via le tuyau annelé (couleur rouge) dans le faux poumon expiratoire Un piège à eau est situé sur ce sac. De l’oxygène est injecté dans ce mélange expiratoire en fonction de la teneur détectée au niveau des sondes O2, et jusqu’à obtenir la valeur de PPO2 souhaitée (on parle souvent de « set point »). Le mélange ré oxygéné est ensuite nettoyé de son CO2 dans la cartouche de chaux sodée, avant d’être stocké dans le faux poumon inspiratoire (couleur verte) où il est dilué par le mélange choisi. A ce stade, le mélange obtenu est prêt à être inspiré : convenablement oxygéné, dépourvu de CO2 et dans un volume de diluant permettant de se remplir les poumons.
Seule la quantité de gaz nécessaire au mécanisme respiratoire et au métabolisme est injectée (O2 ou diluant) : en théorie donc, aucun gaz ne s’échappe du couple plongeur/machine, le seul déchet est le CO2 qui est stocké dans la cartouche de chaux sodée.
L’injection d’O2 et son contrôle peut être entièrement automatique (électronique), semi manuel, ou entièrement manuel.
Recycleur semi fermé
Dans un type de machine comme le « DOLPHIN » du gaz est injecté en permanence, à travers des buses, afin d’enrichir en O2 le mélange après passage dans la cartouche de chaux sodée. Ce système est dit « actif », ou à « débit massique constant ». Ce gaz peut également être injecté à la demande, dans le cas de systèmes dits « passifs ».
Le gaz injecté est un mélange suroxygéné, choisi en fonction de la profondeur d’évolution. L’inconvénient majeur de ce système est que le taux d’O2 du mélange respiratoire est variable et dépend de la consommation de l’organisme. Le taux d’O2 du mélange respiré sera toujours inférieur à celui du mélange sélectionné. L’étude approfondie de cette perte n’entre pas dans le cadre de ce mémoire.
Le surplus de gaz s’échappe naturellement par la soupape de surpression.
Par rapport à un recycleur fermé, le SCR aura donc une autonomie réduite, dont la limite dépendra de la contenance du bloc nitrox et non plus seulement de la cartouche de chaux sodé.
INTERETS
Temps / confort
Le principal intérêt de la plongée en recycleur est bien évidemment la durée de plongée qu’il autorise, limitée à la capacité de la cartouche de chaux sodée (plus de 3 heures) dans le cas de CCR, supérieure à 2 heures dans la majorité des plongées SCR. De telles durées ne peuvent pas être envisagées, sous nos latitudes, sans l’utilisation d’une combinaison étanche sans laquelle l’hypothermie du plongeur serait atteinte bien avant les limites de la machine. Cependant, les déperditions calorifiques générées par la ventilation du plongeur sont nettement moins importantes que lorsque ce dernier respire sur un circuit ouvert classique. En effet le phénomène de détente du gaz dans le premier et le deuxième étage d’un détendeur, refroidi considérablement le mélange que respire le plongeur. Ainsi le mélange inspiré contribue lui aussi, tout comme la température de l’eau environnante, à refroidir le plongeur dont le corps s’évertue à réchauffer un gaz qu’il évacue à chaque expiration.
Lorsque le plongeur inspire le gaz que lui délivre son recycleur, le mélange est déjà beaucoup plus tempéré (il a été réchauffé par le corps à l’expiration précédente et la réaction chimique dans la cartouche de chaux sodée est exothermique) et humidifié (contrairement au gaz détendu contenu dans le bloc du circuit ouvert qui a été asséché lors de sa compression.) La respiration en plongée à l’aide d’un recycleur s’apparente beaucoup plus à la respiration terrestre au niveau des sensations qu’avec un bloc en circuit ouvert. L’adaptation du plongeur n’en est que plus facile et l’impression de confort ventilatoire est rapidement perçue.
Décompression / Gaz
Lorsque l’on parle de la gestion des gaz embarqués en recycleur, on est effectivement amené à envisager deux aspects complémentaires :
- le choix du diluant (la base du mélange respiré)
- le calcul de la décompression.
En ces domaines, le recycleur amène un panel de choix très vaste et permet d’optimiser d’une part le « mélange fond » et d’autre part, si on le souhaite, une augmentation progressive du pourcentage d’O2 du mélange lors de la remonté (jusqu’à 100% éventuellement), ce qui logiquement, diminue le temps de paliers. A noter, qu’à contrario, cette remarque est valable à l’inverse lors de la descente, puisque l’on sera amené à réduire le pourcentage d’O2 injecté dans le diluant, si on ne veut pas atteindre, sous l’effet de l’augmentation de la pression, un seuil hyperoxique.
Au regard du prix non négligeable d’un mélange TRIMIX, l’avantage de consommer ce diluant et de le recycler apparaît évident. De plus, le recycleur permet de commencer sa plongée avec un TRIMIX normoxique, pour passer sur un mélange hypoxique fond à la profondeur choisie et de repasser sur un mélange normoxique à la remontée. Le pilotage de la PPO2 via les indicateurs numériques permet d’adapter le pourcentage d’O2 dans le diluant et donc d’optimiser le mélange fond et la décompression. Mieux vaut rapidement se familiariser avec les calculs de pressions partielles qui doivent devenir un acte réflexe !
On est très loin de l’image du plongeur « tech » en circuit ouvert, bardé de toutes ses bouteilles de mélanges fond, descente et remontée, voire de décompression. Le seul recycleur serait capable de remplacer tout cet attirail, puisqu’il est conçu pour adapter le pourcentage d’O2 à la profondeur d’évolution (manuellement ou automatiquement) et qu’il ne demande pas l’emport d’une quantité de gaz monstrueuse...
Nous verrons plus loin que la sagesse veut qu’une plongée en recycleur, plus que tout autre, se planifie précisément. Dans cette planification viendra le moment d’envisager le pire des cas : la panne totale en début de remonté. Cette précaution viendra quelque peu ternir ce tableau idyllique, même si les intérêts évoqués précédemment restent intacts...
Quant à l’utilisation des ces différents diluants, elle est bien entendue assujettie à la détention des qualifications ad hoc, conformément au Code du Sport de 2008. Cette partie sera étudiée dans la partie de ce mémoire réservée aux cursus de formation.
Translation - English General Principles
Open-circuit sport diving, as we think of it today, owes a great deal to the military for its development. The technical and commercial advances brought about by the mass adoption of the activity by all kinds of people have had knock on effects in the military domain, which in turn has been able to benefit.
This virtuous circle in the development of open-circuit diving is being repeated in the field of rebreather diving: military technology, onerous and secret, has little by little been adapted in the wider world where the costs of operation diminish with time. All this leads one to believe that the development of sports rebreathers will in turn open the door to the further development of military hardware and even more innovative technologies in the future.
The basic principle of the rebreather is extremely simple: as the name suggests, the machine “rebreathes” the air that is breathed.
In open-circuit diving, all the gas breathed in, taken from the cylinder, is breathed out again and lost into the water. The diver’s diving time is thus limited by the capacity of his cylinder (volume/service pressure), and by his rate of consumption (lung capacity/breathing rate/depth progression).
In a rebreather, exhaled gas is recovered to be breathed again, after being thoroughly “refurbished” for consumption.
In fact, the human body only absorbs a tiny portion (about 5%) of the oxygen it breathes in. Exhaled gas therefore still contains about 16% oxygen, which is perfectly useful to the organism. It would be enough to merely input small amounts of oxygen from time to time to keep the mixture at its nominal levels. On the other hand, the same metabolism produces carbon dioxide, which quickly becomes toxic if not got rid of. To continue to use the same gas therefore also requires the removal of carbon dioxide. The rebreather employs these two principles at the same time: oxygen replenishment and carbon dioxide scrubbing.
To do this, several steps are needed:
• Recovery of exhaled gas: takes place in a bag, called the “Exhale Counterlung”, as the diver breathes out into the ribbed tube.
• Carbon dioxide scrubbing: takes place in a cartridge of soda lime, which chemically fixes carbon dioxide.
• Analysis of the oxygen strength of the mixture and adjustment to required levels: done by electronic cells, and a system of oxygen injection controlled either automatically or manually.
• Inhalation of the final mixture: takes place in an “Inhale Counterlung”, via another ribbed tube.
The whole kit needed for these different steps is usually streamlined and installed in a kind of suitcase that the diver carries on his back… Divers look a little like turtles with shells: whence my favourite nickname: “ninja turtles”.
The soda lime cartridge is in some ways the heart of the machine. It has to grab hold of the carbon dioxide in the breathing circuit, without “stemming” gas flow. Too tightly packed, it would not allow enough mixture through and need too much breathing effort. Too loosely packed and it would act like a sieve with the holes too big, allowing carbon dioxide through. Its capacity to fix carbon dioxide will broadly be the limiting factor in determining rebreather diving time. Overstaying that time would most certainly risk thrusting the diver into a state of hypercapnia and its corollary: suffocation. Soda lime, in the presence of water produces soda. This alkali, just like an acid, is particularly harmful to the human body and can bring about irreversible lesions: notably in the respiratory tract. One can then understand all the care that is needed in making ready and managing this apparatus. In order to prevent any ingress of water into the system, “water traps” are installed at different stages of the machine. Water can still get into the system in spite of this, as happened in one of my first tests: the taste is horrible, switching back to open circuit diving seems instantly to be the most sensible solution!
Depending on the machine, the counterlungs can be placed on the straps or within the protective outer shell. They look like soft bags, easy to deform. The Exhale Counterlung will have an over-pressure valve, needed to let out an excess of gas (whilst ascending for example). The Exhale Counterlung can allow oxygen input. However this would only be a very rare thing during exhalation as in this case the valve would be wont to let it all out straight away. Injection is usually done at the inhalation stage or the soda lime cartridge on the inhalation side as in the case of INHALATION. The Inhale Counterlung receives the diluent inflator, needed to re-balance the volume of inhalation gas in step with the lung volume of the diver and the ambient pressure.
PPO2 analysis (oxygen partial pressure) is entrusted to the electronic cells, whose safety is ensured by redundant backups. Different brands and models are available on the market: they all work the same way – they “count” oxygen molecules, and turn the figure into an electronic voltage, thanks to an on-board battery. The whole thing is processed by a little calculator capable of displaying oxygen partial pressure, according to the depth progression.
It is pretty clear that a bit of kit like this needs calm and meticulous preparation and that rebreather diving, even more than open circuit scuba diving, is not to be undertaken on a whim! We will discuss the inherent risks at more length later on.
Closed rebreather
In this type of rebreather, in theory, not a single gas bubble is let out: the circuit is completely “closed”. We often describe it with the acronym CCR (close circuit rebreather).
As an example let us look at the working of an “INHALATION” rebreather, with electronic PPO2 management. The diagram below is from the distributor of the machine, “Ambient Pressure Diving”.
The diver breathes out into the mouthpiece. The exhaled gas is conducted via the ribbed tube (red) in the Exhale Counterlung. A water trap is located on this bag. Oxygen is injected into the exhaled mixture according to the level detected by the oxygen sensors, and until the desired PPO2 level is obtained (often referred to as “set point”). The re-oxygenated mixture is then scrubbed of CO2 in the soda lime cartridge, before being stored in the Inhale Counterlung (green) where it is diluted with the chosen mixture. At this stage the mixture obtained is ready to be breathed: rightly oxygenated, scrubbed of CO2 and in a sufficient volume of diluent to fill the lungs.
Only the amount of gas necessary for the respiratory mechanism and the metabolism is injected (O2 or diluent): in theory therefore, no gas escapes from the diver/machine system, the only waste product is CO2, which is stored in the soda lime cartridge.
Oxygen injection and its regulation can be completely automatic (electronic), semi-manual or completely manual.
Semi-closed rebreather
In a machine like the “Dolphin”, gas is permanently introduced via tubes in order to re-oxygenate the mixture after it has passed through the soda lime cartridge. This system is called “active” or “constant mass flow”. This gas can also be injected on demand, in the case of “passive” systems.
The gas injected is an over-oxygenated mixture, chosen depending on the depth progression. The main drawback of this system is that the level of oxygen of a breathing mixture is variable and depends on the organism’s rate of consumption. The oxygen level of the breathed mixture will always be lower than that of the selected mixture. A detailed study of this disparity is not the subject of this document.
Excess gas escapes naturally via the over-pressure valve. Compared to a closed rebreather, the SCR offers less dive time, the limit depending on the capacity of the nitrox cylinder and not merely on the soda lime cartridge.
BENEFITS
The main benefit of rebreather diving is clearly the extended dive times it allows, limited by the capacity of the soda lime cartridge: over 3 hours in the case of CCR, and over 2 hours in most SCR dives. Such durations cannot be imagined at our latitudes without the use of a dry suit, else the diver would succumb to hypothermia long before the end of his dive time.
Nonetheless the heat loss incurred by the diver’s breathing is significantly lower than is the case in a classic open-circuit dive setup. In fact the phenomenon of gas release in the first and second levels of a gas releaser considerably cools down the diver’s mixture. In this way, the mixture breathed in also contributes, like the surrounding water temperature, to chilling the diver, whose body struggles to warm up the gas he inhales with each breath.
When a diver breathes gas from a rebreather, the mixture is already much more temperate (it has been warmed already by his body during previous breathing cycles and furthermore the chemical reaction in the soda lime cartridge is exothermic) and damp (unlike the gas released from an open-circuit cylinder, which gets dried out during compression). Rebreather breathing therefore feels much more like surface breathing than an open-circuit cylinder does. This can only help the diver to feel more comfortable and the impression of easier breathing is immediately apparent.
Decompression/gas
When we talk about on-board gas management in a rebreather, we must consider two complimentary aspects:
• The choice of diluent (the base of the mixture to be breathed)
• Decompression calculation
In this area, the rebreather offers a vast range of choices and allows one to optimise, on the one hand the “background mixture” and on the other if one wishes, a progressive increase of O2 percentage in the mixture during ascent (possibly as much as 100%), which logically reduces decompression stop times. Worth considering also, this point also applies in the opposite scenario whilst descending, since one will be led to reduce the O2 percentage injected in the diluent if one wishes to avoid, under increasing pressure, a hyperoxic threshold.
Bearing in mind the not inconsiderable cost of a TRIMIX mixture, the advantage of using such a diluent and recycling it seems obvious. Furthermore the rebreather allows one to start the dive with a normoxic TRIMIX, then switch to a hypoxic base mixture at one’s chosen depth and then switch back to a normoxic mixture on the ascent. PPO2 monitoring via the digital readout allows one to adjust the O2 percentage in the diluent and therefore optimise the background mixture and decompression. It’s best to learn partial pressure reckoning pretty quickly, as it ought to become a reflex action!
The image of an open-circuit diver is far from “hi-tech”, burdened as he is with his background, descent, ascent and even decompression mixture cylinders. One single rebreather could replace all that gubbins, since it’s made to alter O2 percentage according to depth (manually or automatically) and does not require the carrying of huge quantities of gas…
We will see further on that wisdom dictates that a rebreather diver, more than any other, must plan with precision. During such planning there will be time to consider the worst of circumstances: a total breakdown at the start of an ascent. This thought will dull the idyllic picture somewhat, even if the aforementioned benefits remain true…
With regard to the use of different diluents, this is of course subject to holding the relevant qualifications, in accordance with the Code of Sport 2008. This will be discussed further in the training section.
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Years of experience: 18. Registered at ProZ.com: Feb 2013.
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